This blog explores the politics of education in Iraq and the Kurdistan Federal Region through a critical examination of the history and societal studies textbooks for school years four to twelve students in both regions. The analysis focuses on how public-school textbooks represent Kurds, an ethno-national group, within Iraq’s broader narrative and how Kurdish-authored textbooks emphasise Kurdish national identity. By analysing these textbooks, we gain insight into how education is used as a political tool in both contexts.
The Inherent Politics of Education
Education, as argued by scholars such as Michael Apple and Linda Christian-Smith (1991) and Keith Crawford (2003), is an essential agent of nation-building. Furthermore, as suggested by Riad Nasser (2004), states often control how students’ national identities and collective memories are shaped. Crawford (2003) further emphasises that history curricula are key to transmitting national narratives and shape the understanding of nationhood and culture. In addition, Apple and Christian-Smith (1991) highlight that textbooks are ideological tools serving the interests of certain social classes and groups.
Political intervention in education is not a novel concept, nor is it exclusive to Iraq or Kurdistan. Rather, it has long been part of educational systems across the world. This intervention can be either constructive or detrimental, depending on its aims. Education can promote peace, coexistence, and tolerance, or it can foster division, hatred, and marginalisation. In many countries, Iraq and the Kurdistan Region included, the state commissions the creation of school textbooks to control the narratives conveyed to students. These narratives shape students’ national identities and collective memories, which is why studies of school textbooks are crucial for understanding how nations use history to define conceptions of nationhood and culture.
Iraqi Textbooks, Arabization and Marginalisation of Kurds
Since its creation by British colonial power, Iraq’s political elite has sought to unify Arabs under a single state. The education system was fully utilized to serve this goal by emphasising the history of the “glorious” Arab past, fostering a sense of Arab national awakening. The concept of Iraq as part of a greater “Arab nation” was reinforced, marginalising the country’s ethnic diversity, including Kurds.
“For decades, Iraqi history textbooks downplayed or erased the presence of Kurds, portraying Iraqi society as uniformly Arab.”
For decades, Iraqi history textbooks downplayed or erased the presence of Kurds, portraying Iraqi society as uniformly Arab. The textbooks described Iraq as part of the Arab world, with no acknowledgment of the Kurdish, Turkmen, or Chaldo-Assyrian communities. In fact, Kurdish historical sites were often presented as Arabic heritage, and Kurdish historical figures, such as Salah al-Din al-Ayubi, were Arabized to hide their Kurdish identities. The curriculum consistently marginalised Kurdish contributions, and for many years, the word “Kurd” was absent from Iraqi textbooks.
During Saddam Hussein’s regime (1968-2003), school textbooks were heavily influenced by his authoritarian rule, glorifying Saddam and building a personality cult. Education was used as a tool for indoctrination, ensuring the loyalty of Iraq’s youth through slogans like “We recruit the youth to assure the future.”
The KRG’s Self-Authored Textbooks, The Politics of Identity
The Kurdish educational landscape changed dramatically after the establishment of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in 1992, following the Kurdish uprising and the Second Gulf War. From 1992 until 2005, Kurds continued to use old Iraqi textbooks, though these were purged of content seen as pro-Ba’athist or overly Arab-centric. Gradually, Kurdish educators produced their own textbooks, reflecting Kurdish national identity and history.
After 2005, the KRG Ministry of Education began producing textbooks independently, enabling Kurdish educators to shape the narratives taught in schools. These textbooks aimed to emphasize Kurdish history, national identity, and territorial boundaries. By doing so, the textbooks sought to instil a sense of Kurdish uniqueness and continuity, portraying Kurdistan as an ancient homeland with a distinct cultural heritage.
The central aim of the KRG’s textbooks is to construct a collective Kurdish memory by linking the present to an imagined or real past. The historical narrative in these textbooks presents Kurdistan as an ancient nation and homeland, with claims that Kurdish states/empires were established over 4,000 years ago. A Kurdish calendar was invented to deepen the roots of Kurdish history and to align the ancient settlers of the region with the Kurds of today. In some cases, Kurdistan is even depicted as the “first homeland of the second generation of mankind,” based on archaeological findings in the region.
KRG textbooks also emphasize Kurdish geography, using maps to demarcate the boundaries of Kurdistan and separate it from neighbouring countries. This cartographic representation creates a visual sense of Kurdish homeland and territorial identity, crucial to the Kurdish struggle for self-determination.
While the textbooks promote the ideals of tolerance and cultural pluralism, they also centralise Kurdish identity as core to the Kurdistani national identity. The books conflate significant concepts such as ethnicity, nationality, and citizenship, further complicating the notion of ‘Kurdishness’ in relation to other ethnic and national groups.
A key strategy in the KRG textbooks is the creation of Kurdish national identity through the “othering” of non-Kurdish civilizations and peoples. For instance, the ancient civilizations of Iraq, Egypt, and Iran are portrayed as distinct from the “Kurdistani civilization,” establishing historical boundaries between Kurds and others in the region. After the advent of Islam, Arabs—rather than the religion itself—are presented as the “other,” with the arrival of Islam in Kurdistan depicted as an expansionist force that led to Arabization.
Since the establishment of the KRG, Kurdish textbooks have portrayed Kurdistan as a geopolitical entity equal to other nation-states. These books emphasize the right of Kurds to self-determination and statehood, aligning the Kurdish struggle with that of other stateless nations in the Middle East. This emphasis on self-determination is the core political message in Kurdish textbooks, reflecting the broader political aspirations of Kurdish people and Kurdish leaders.
Conclusion
Education in Iraq and the Kurdistan Region is a powerful tool for shaping national identity and political narratives. In Iraq, education has historically been used to promote Arab nationalism, marginalising Kurdish identity in the process. In contrast, Kurdish self-authored textbooks emphasise Kurdish history, geography, and identity, portraying Kurdistan as a distinct nation with the right to statehood. For nation-builders and nationalists, the curriculum is a powerful vehicle for constructing a collective identity, and in the Kurdistan Region, this has been used to advance the political goals of self-determination and nationhood.
The evolution of Kurdish textbooks highlights the role of education in the political struggles of marginalised groups and the enduring impact of schooling on national identity formation. As both Iraq and the Kurdistan Region continue to navigate complex political landscapes, the politics of education remains a critical factor in shaping the future of these societies.
Any opinions expressed in this, or any other blog post on this website, are solely those of the author and do not represent the views of the Education, Peace and Politics organisation.
References
Apple, Michael W. and Linda K. Christian-Smith (1991). “The Politics of the Textbook,” in The Politics of the Textbook, eds. Michael W. Apple and Linda K. Christian-Smith. London: Routledge.
Crawford, Keith (2003) “The Role and Purpose of Textbooks,” International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research, 3(2), pp. 5–12.
Nasser, Riad (2004). “Exclusion and the Making of Jordanian National Identity: An Analysis of School Textbooks,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 10(2), p. 221–249.
